Difference between Structured and Unstructured Observation

Difference between Structured and Unstructured Observation At the first step of this assessment I need to outline what is involved in structured observation. The two main strategies that researchers can usually use to record their observations of events are the structured and unstructured observation. The former involves the recording of events of predefined types occurring at particular points in time, or within particular intervals. Structured observation typically produces quantitative data (information about the frequency of different sorts of events or of the proportion of time spent on different types of activity). This form of observation typically involves different threats to validity. Among the dangers with structured observation is that the predefined categories used, will turn out not to be clearly defined, so that there is uncertainty in particular instances about which category is appropriate. There may also be relevant events that do not seem to fit into any of the categories. This, however, is only gained at the cost of the i nformation being collected on different cases or at different times often not being comparable (Research Methods in Education, Handbook, p. 44). Furthermore, structured observation is easy to be described but difficult to be appreciated without actually engaging in the process. Very simply, it involves placing an observer in a social setting to observe all activities defined as of interest to the research. In essence, the method is derived from participant observation in social anthropology and the distinction which is sometimes made between participant and non-participant observation does not fully hold in practice: some degree of participation is inevitable. As William Howard Russell, the Victorian war correspondent for the Times said I stand and look around, and say thus does it appear to me and thus I seem to see so does the structured observation. The structure of structured observation is imposed by the aims of the research in the same way as such aims impose structure upon any method of data-collection. Just as is the case when open questions are used in interviews or self-completed questionnaires the researcher using structured observation recognizes that not all of the structure can be determined in advance and that some structure must be imposed on the data after they have been collected (Roberts, 1975, p. 309). Researchers undertaking structured observational research usually look to use low-inference categories in other words, categories that can be applied to instances with a minimum of contestable judgement on the part of the observer in the hope of incurring only small elements of error and uncertainty. For example, low-inference categories for observing a meeting might include such things as Asks a question, Expresses agreement and Makes a proposal (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 145). Furthermore, it is almost sure that some data obtained from structured observation contain errors, especially if observation is carried out under considerable pressure of time, leading the candidate to make wrong judgement in wrong boxes. However structured observation as a quantitative research has also been guided by at least some of the assumptions of positivism from laboratory experiments, through structured observational studies of classroom teaching, to large-scale social surveys of t he attitudes of teachers, students, parents, education managers and others. Indeed, over the course of the twentieth century, a great deal of educational research was influenced by a positivist approach concerned, for example, with identifying the relative effectiveness of different teaching strategies and techniques (Dunkin, 1974, p. 6). Coming to the second part of the assignment, I will try to introduce according to the best of my knowledge, the methodological philosophy of positivism. In concern to the tenets of logical empiricism, scientific progress in any discipline begins with the untainted observation of reality. This fact is expected to provide the researcher with an image of the real world from which cognitively generates an a priori model of the process to be investigated. The word positivism is nowadays used in such a wide range of ways that it has become almost meaningless, except that it is usually employed desperately to dismiss views or forms of research of which the speaker disapproves. The original meaning of the term contained some important elements. Widely, positivism can be characterised historically as a way of thinking about knowledge and enquiry that takes natural science, as it developed after the seventeenth century, as the model, and which seeks to apply the scientific method to new fields . Even though the term positivism was not invented until the nineteenth century, this idea was a central strand of eighteenth-century Enlightenment thinking, although it was by no means the only one and was certainly not accepted by all Enlightenment thinkers (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 78). One of the main elements of positivism is the idea that it is the task of research to identify standard repeatable patterns between cause and effect, identifying particular pedagogical strategies that reliably bring about a desirable educational outcome. However, there are questions about whether such patterns exist, what character they have if they do, and how we can know them. Another feature of positivism is the idea that research must follow an explicit procedure, so that the idiosyncratic effects of who is doing the research can be eliminated and the replicability of the findings checked. Trying to build on this, the concept of evidence-based policy-making and practice is often promoted on the grounds that it is transparent, since it is guided by explicitly specified knowledge whose validity is open to inspection even though this idea is subjected to dispute. In contrast, the positivist philosophy, suffers from several limitations, especially when applied to social sciences. First, this approach, generalizes a universal statement of truth from observations of a certain number of positive instances. The strict inductionist approach is often inappropriate because speculation and creation of an a priori hypothesis are essential for a systematic procedure of theory building. Furthermore, the empiricist approach is based on the notion of pure observation, which is impossible in research, especially in social sciences, since observations are always subject to measurement errors. Finally, this approach assumes that knowledge is derived from an objective interpretation of assumptions, without any of the subjective biases or a priori knowledge of the scientist coming into play. Furthermore, positivists have tended to believe that the success of natural science in modern times has stemmed from scientists refusal to go beyond what can be supported by empirical evidence. It is easy to forget how radical an orientation this was in earlier centuries, and perhaps still is in some quarters. It challenges religious claims to knowledge about the world, various kinds of speculative philosophy that do not pay close attention to what is warranted by empirical evidence, and even any appeal to what is obvious to common sense. (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 79). The third component of my essay is the strengths and weaknesses of structured observation in concern of positivism. Although positivism has been a recurrent theme in the history of western thought from the Ancient Greeks to the present day, it is historically associated with the nineteenth-century French philosopher, Auguste Comte, who was the first thinker to use the word for a philosophical position. In his study of the history of the philosophy and methodology of science, Oldroyd (1986) says: It was Comte who consciously invented the new science of society and gave it the name to which we are accustomed. He thought that it would be possible to establish it on a positive basis, just like the other sciences, which served as necessary preliminaries to it. For social phenomena were to be viewed in the light of physiological (or biological) laws and theories and investigated empirically, just like physical phenomena. Likewise, biological phenomena were to be viewed in the light of chem ical laws and theories; and so on down the line (Silverman et al, (2000), p.18). Furthermore, Comtes position was to lead to a general doctrine of positivism which held that all genuine knowledge is based on sense experience and can only be advanced by means of observation and experiment. Firstly, Positivism here implies a particular stance concerning the social scientist as an observer of social reality and second the end-product of investigations by social scientists can be formulated in terms parallel to those of natural science. This means that their analyses must be expressed in laws or law-like generalizations of the same kind that have been established in relation to natural. Positivists often had high hopes that science, and especially a science of human social life, would pave the way for substantial social and political progress, by undermining beliefs and practices that were based solely on superstition or tradition, and replacing them wherever possible with ones founded on scientific evidence. To a large extent, positivists have, adopted experimental physics as their model. As a result to this, it has been a strong tendency for them to insist that it is essential to use the experimental method, and the forms of statistical analysis modelled on it, to engage in the careful measurement of phenomena, and to look for causal or statistical relationships among variables. These commitments strongly imply the use of quantitative data (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 89). Another characteristic of positivist philosophy is the view that, to develop knowledge, it is essential to follow special or transparent procedures or methods. The logic behind thi s is that it helps to eliminate the biases that can arise through the influence of the personal and social characteristics of the researcher. In addition, can achieve what is sometimes referred to as procedural objectivity. It also allows others to replicate the research, which in some regard is necessary in order to test whether the knowledge produced is sound, or whether it has been distorted by error or bias by the researcher. Furthermore, positivism is the idea that research should follow a set of explicit procedures, so that the idiosyncratic effects of who is doing the research can be eliminated and the replicability of the findings checked. Building on this, the concept of structured observation policy-making and practice is often promoted on the grounds that it is transparent, since it is guided by explicitly specified knowledge whose validity is open to inspection. The link between positivism and the notion of structured observation does not necessarily mean that the idea that educational research can and should be designed to make a significant contribution to educational policy-making and/or practice. Indeed, one sign that the positivists impose on this commitment is that positivism has influenced various forms of action research. This often requires enquiry to be integrated into educational practice, rather than being detached from it in the way that much ordinary research is (E891 Educational Enq uiry, Study Guide, p. 219). However, as in all methods so in this one strengths and weakness can be distinguished. Structured observation can provide good insights into how the different participants are behaving and interacting. In addition, may enable you to see things that are taken for granted by participants in the learning and teaching context. Their perceived lack of importance by participants may mean that they would not be picked up by other methods that explore participant perceptions. In addition to the above, the task of the educational investigator often explains the means by which an orderly social world is established and maintained in terms of its shared meanings and how do participant observation techniques assist the researcher in this task. As Bailey mention some inherent advantages in the participant observation approach: Observation studies are superior to experiments and surveys when data are being collected on non-verbal behaviour. In observation studies, investigators are able to discern ongoing behaviour as it occurs and are able to make appropriate notes about its salient features. Because case study observations take place over an extended period of time, researchers can develop more intimate and informal relationships with those they are observing, generally in more natural environments than those in which experiments and surveys are conducted. Case study observations are less reactive than other types of data-gathering methods. For example, in laboratory-based experiments and in surveys that depend upon verbal responses to structured questions, bias can be introduced in the very data that researchers are attempting to study. (Silverman et al, (2000), p.18). In contrast to the above, firstly, structured observation neglects the significance of contexts-temporal and spatial-thereby overlooking the fact those behaviours may be context specific. In their concern for the overt and the observable, researchers may overlook unintended outcomes which may have significance; they may be unable to show how significant are the behaviours of the participants being observed in their own terms. Furthermore, structured observations as a quantitative method in concern with positivism can be time consuming. Getting a representative picture of the implementation over the duration of a pilot or embedding phase of a change in learning and teaching will involve attending more than one learning and teaching activity or event. Continuing, its activities may affect the behaviour of those involved in it and hence what you observe. Participants may be concerned about what you are actually evaluating. Academic staff may be concerned the quality of their teaching is being evaluated and students may be concerned their academic performance is being assessed. The thinking that underlies participants observed actions cannot be observed. Finally, structured observations are therefore used with other methods that seek insight into this thinking. Being able to make sense of the context of evaluation in a limited amount of time with limited resources may require some knowledge of the academic discipline and its culture. At this part of my assignment, I will introduce the methodological philosophy of interpretivism. Interpretivism was introduced from German philosopher Max Weber. According to Max Weber from whom the interpretivist tradition is derived, the enterprise of social science could not be treated as similar to that of the natural science. He stressed on social action which means the study of meaning which the individual attaches to his/her actions. Interpretivisms starting point is its insistence on differentiating between the nature of the phenomena investigated by the natural sciences and the nature of those studied by historians, social scientists and educational researchers. Mainly, it argues that people in contrast atoms, chemicals or most non-human forms of life interpret their environment and themselves in ways that are shaped by the particular cultures in which they live. These distinctive cultural orientations shape what they do, and when and how they do it (E891 Educational Enquiry , Study Guide, p. 81). Interpretivist does not reject the idea of scientific or objective knowledge, but they question the notion that the methods employed by natural science used also in the study of society or social sciences. He stressed on social action which means the study of meaning which the individual attaches to his or her actions. Furthermore Interpretivist criticize Positivists for neglecting the fact that they are studying people who need to be explored in the ways they really think and act in different kinds of situations. Social institutions cannot be treated as separate entities or divorced from the subjective understanding or meaning that people have of them and society cannot be studied on the principle of causality as positivists stress, may make a great deal of sense in the natural world but according to the interpretivist, cannot be rigidly applied in the social world. People do not just react to external stimuli like biologically programmed living organisms. They actively interpret an d control the situation and control their behavior, acting on the basis of their interpretations of what is going on, what is the best course of action. Many different responses are possible. There are three different interpretations of a single event, e.g.; there is no consistent cause and effect relationship. Whatever the response, an observer cannot make sense of your response without interpreting the meaning you attributed to your teachers behavior, for it is this meaning that explains your response, not the observable event on its own. Interpretivists argue that all research methods involve complex forms of communication: therefore, coming to understand other people necessarily relies both on researchers background, cultural knowledge and skills, and on their willingness to suspend prior assumptions and allow understanding of other peoples orientations to emerge over the course of enquiry. Thus quite different ways of life and associated beliefs about the world can be located at different points in history and also coexist (peacefully or in conflict) at any time. Furthermore, this is not just a matter of differences between societies; there is also significant cultural variation within the large, complex societies in which most of us now live. Interpretivists argue that we cannot understand why people do what they do, why particular institutions exist and operate in characteristic ways, without grasping how people interpret and make sense of their world in other words, the distinctive nature of their beliefs, atti tudes and thoughts. Coming to this part of my assignment I need to mention the strengths and weaknesses of structured observation within the context of interpretivism. As we know, structured observation involves a researcher watching and listening to actions and events within a particular context over a period of time, and then making a record of what he or she has witnessed. A distinction is sometimes drawn between participant and non-participant structured observation, indicating that the role of an observer may vary a good deal. He or she may play a participant role in the setting or the events being observed, or may play no such role other than observer. The primary concern behind this distinction is reactivity in other words, the extent to which, and the ways in which, the behaviour of the people studied is shaped both by the fact that they are being studied in a given way and by the particular characteristics and participant role of the researcher (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 121). Generally speaking, qualitative researchers use relatively structured observation as a supplement to other sources of data. Furthermore, researchers undertaking structured observational research generally seek to use low-inference categories in other words, categories that can be applied to instances with a minimum of contestable judgement on the part of the observer in the hope of incurring only small elements of error and uncertainty. For example, low-inference categories for observing a meeting might include such things as Asks a question, Expresses agreement and Makes a proposal. As a result, this is one of the reasons why interpretivism has encouraged a shift towards qualitative method. Qualitative methods are usually taken to mean unstructured or structured observation, ethnography, focus groups, and etc. that involve researchers in actively listening to what the researched say. The popularity of the term paradigm is traceable to Kuhns work on The Structure of Scientific Revolutions; 7 it can be defined as a total matrix of beliefs about theories, research questions and research data (Oakley, 1999, p.155). These observations and experiences are one way of representing the conflict between different ways of achieving knowledge about the world that amongst social researchers are known as qualitative and quantitative methods. A commonly accepted alliance has developed between research method and research subject, according to which qualitative methods are often used to privilege the experiences of oppressed social groups. What I argue is that this division of methodological labour is, firstly, socially and historically constructed and secondly is problematic in terms of the potential of qualitative methods to produce an emancipator social science with trustworthy knowledge claims. However, this qualitative method as all the other research methods has strengths and weaknesses points. Taking the advantages strengths at the beginning, I can definitely mention that usually the data is based on the participants own categories of meaning and the research is only useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth. Not only that, another major advantage of the method is that the researcher can describe complex phenomena something that you can rarely find in any other method. Structured observation is one of the most straightforward ways to gather information via the school or classroom having a strong connection with the researcher of interpretivism and get a picture of what happens. It is often a good way to begin to explore a situation you want to know more about. It can also be useful to add information to other sources of data you may be collecting for your action enquiry. However, it is important to be aware that as an observer you can often affect the situation you are trying to observe. Generally the role of the observer can be pure (unnoticed, part of the wallpaper) or participatory (e.g. participate in what is going on in the situation observed). The latter use qualitative, structured approaches of observation; the former might use a mixture of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Whilst the pure observer uses an instrument (e.g. proforma) for the observation, the participant-observer is the instrument. One very common example could be the finding of the class teacher in finding out how children solve a multiplication problem. As a pure observer she or he will use an observation checklist, ticking boxes as she or he observes the pupil on a pre-determined problem-solving activity. Then, as the instrument himself or herself, she or he may ask the pupil what he or she did, why he did it, and may even set him another, but similar, task, to see if he uses the same strategy. By doing so, the teacher will influence the outcome, but in the context of teaching and learning this may be a valid method of structured observation. Taking the above simple example into consideration someone can definitely determine not only the strengths but also the weaknesses of the method used. From the point of strength, the researcher Can conduct cross-case comparisons and analysis and provides understanding and description of peoples personal experiences of the phenomena. Furthermore, the researcher can study dynamic processes, and determine how participants interpret constructs. In addition, qualitative researchers are especially responsive to changes that occur during the conduct of a study and may shift the focus of their studies. In contrast, biases can be developed. Data analysis is often time consuming and the results are more easily influenced by the researchers personal biases and idiosyncrasies. Meaning that all perceptual processes involving the taking in of information by observation and its subsequent internal processing are subject to bias. Our own interests, experiences, and expectations are likely to influen ce what we pay attention to and do make a conscious effort to distribute your attention widely and evenly. Finally, It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools but knowledge produced might not generalize to other people or other settings (i.e., findings might be unique to the relatively few people included in the research study. Part six, is the last part of my assignment. The searching question in this part has to do with all of the discussion done on the previous sections. Up to now, structured observation was the core of our assignment and the way researchers develop their task. As a result, I have discussed the structured observation from the point of positivism and the quantity method on the one hand and the structured observation from the point of interpretivism and the qualitative method on the other hand. However since Gage wrote his fictional history, what has actually happened is in fact quite complex and varies across countries. The trend against positivism continued, and what we have called constructionism emerged as an important influence alongside interpretivism and critical research. However, in the early years of the twenty-first century, there have been signs of a second phase, the re-emergence of positivist ideas, partly as a result of calls for practice to become evidence-based. Neverthele ss, at present, much educational research continues to take a qualitative approach. Alongside, the revival in support for quantitative methods in some quarters, there have also been increasing calls for mixed methods or triangulation research that is, research that combines quantitative and qualitative approaches and more methods. The justification for this is often the kind of pragmatism to which Gage appealed. It is suggested that, by combining quantitative and qualitative methods, it is possible to gain the benefits of both and avoid the weaknesses of each when used on its own (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 89). Coming to the point, the difference between positivism and interpretivism is rather subtle than a difference in focus, but it is still important. Examine the situation historically, the conflict between positivism and interpretivism dates from at least the middle of the nineteenth century, although it only arose clearly within the field of educational research during the second half of the twentieth century. Usually, positivists researchers have generally assumed that it is possible to document recurrent and standard patterns of relationship. At first between peoples background experiences and their attitudes, and then between their attitudes and their behaviour. On the other side of the coin, interpretivists researchers have suggested that these relationships are much more contingent and diverse, as the historians have emphasised the uncertain course of history and this is not simply the playing out of a set of universal laws. This is what Gage means when he says that interpretivist s reject the assumption of the uniformity of nature and linear causal models (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 81). It is worth to mention an example at this point to raise the difference among them. Positivists assume that it is possible to document attitudes by getting people to respond to a standard structured questionnaire. Interpretivists, however, argue that all research methods involve complex forms of communication: therefore, coming to understand other people necessarily relies both on researchers background cultural knowledge and skills, and on their willingness to suspend prior assumptions and allow understanding of other peoples orientations to emerge over the course of enquiry. Further to the point I have raised concerning the two other methods, i.e., the mixed method or triangulation, I have the feeling I need to elaborate on at least at one of them. The triangulation, in social science, is defined as the mixing of data or methods so that diverse viewpoints or standpoints cast light upon a topic. The mixing of data types, known as data triangulation, is often thought to help in validating the claims that might arise from an initial pilot study. The mixing of methodologies, e.g. mixing the use of survey data with interviews, is a more profound form of triangulation. Denzin wrote a justification for triangulation in 1970 and is credited by some with initiating the move toward integrated research that mixes methods. However other authors in other contexts have used mixed methods research both before and after Denzins summary was written. For instance, Lenin used a mixture of quantitative data tables along with a political-economy analysis of charged words use d in his classic research monograph, The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1898). We would today say that his work used methodological triangulation of discourse analysis (a qualitative methodology), and survey data (a quantitative methodology), to study the end of the Russian peasantry and the early beginnings of working class conflict with employers in Russia (Wendy O., 2004, p.3). Continuing the above and according to researchers from case studies to econometric analysis, educational research has a long tradition of employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, but the usual juxtaposition of qualitative research against quantitative research makes it easy to miss the fact that qualitative research itself encompasses a multitude of different approaches. Qualitative work can be positivist: It can attempt to document practices that lead consistently to one set of outcomes rather than another, to identify characteristics that commonly are related to some policy problem, or to find strategic patterns that hold across different venues and with different actors. Qualitative work also can be interpretivist: It attempts to understand what general concepts like poverty or race mean in their specific operation, to uncover the conscious and unconscious explanations people have for what they do or believe, or to capture and reproduce a particular time, culture, or p lace so that actions people take become intelligible. In conclusion, observation methods are powerful tools for gaining insight into situations. As with other data collection techniques, they are beset by issues of validity and reliability. Even low inference observation, perhaps the safest form of observation, is itself highly selective, just as perception is selective. Higher forms of inference, whilst moving towards establishing causality, rely on greater levels of interpretation by the observer, wherein the observer makes judgements about intentionality and motivation. In this respect it has been suggested that additional methods of gathering data might be employed, to provide corroboration and triangulation, in short, to ensure that reliable inferences are derived from reliable data. References Dunkin, M.J. and Biddle, B.J. (1974) The Study of Teaching, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, (2007), The Open University. Oakley, A., Peoples way of knowing: gender and methodology. In: Critical issues in social research, Hood, S, Mayall, B. Oliver, S., pp.154-170. Open University Press, 1999. Research Methods in Education, Handbook, (2003), The Open University. Silverman, David (2000). Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. Sage Wendy, O. (2004) Triangulation in Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Can Really Be Mixed, Causeway Press.

Human Performance Enhancement Technology :: Science Engineering Essays

Human Performance Enhancement Technology One of the funniest things about human nature is that nothing is ever good enough. No matter how good we are at something, there will always be someone in those 6 billion plus who can do it better. My mom told me that when I was a kid playing soccer in the back yard. They don't sound like the words of encouragement you might expect from a nurturing mother to an aspiring child but it was true. No matter how long I practiced, how many goals I scored, games I won, trophies I put on the shelf of my bedroom, there would always be someone, somewhere who could do me one up. When faced with this thought, we have a choice to make. Give up and accept life for what it is, try to enjoy every moment and yield to share the glory with the word, or try harder. Obsess over the prospect of achieving perfection and stop at nothing: all for that that one moment, that one instant when we ARE the best. People are like technology, they may be the newest hottest thing on the market but lined up for years behind them are thousands of advancements and improvements, maybe still in the works, but chomping at the bit to break out on the world and push even farther. So what's the point? What's the moral we are supposed to derive from all this? No moral. No point. Just a thought I think is pertinent to the changing tides out there in the battle we all face to be the best we can be. How far will we take it? What is advancement and what is too much? We live in an interesting time. Information technology is growing rapidly, new products and ideas popping up every day in relation to every field. By the same token biology and chemistry are as strong as they have every been, discoveries in medicine and health care are booming. So what happens when these potent ingredients are thrown together? What happens when we apply IT to biology? Well we already are, we ¡Ã‚ ¦ve been doing it for years. Doctors and Scientists couldn't accomplish anything without their computers. The human Genome project could never have even existed if not for computers and the special software used.

Sylvia Plath’s Mourning and Creativity Essay -- Sylvia Plath

Sylvia Plath’s Mourning and Creativity Abstract In this article, I concentrate on the connection between mourning and creativity in Sylvia Plath’s work. Melanie Klein postulates that the pain of mourning and the reparation experienced in the depressive position is the basis of creative activity. Through creative activity, one can restore lost internal and external objects and lost happiness. I argue that Plath’s work is an example of Klein’s idea that artists’ creative products represent the process of mourning. For Plath, art -- in her case, writing -- was a compensation for loss, especially the loss of her father. She seems to have continued writing as her exercise in mourning and reparation trying to regain not only her bereaved father but also her internal good object which was lost when her father died. Through her writing, Plath attempted to enrich her ego with the father-object. Keywords: Sylvia Plath, Melanie Klein, mourning, creativity, reparation In her paper, â€Å"Mourning and its Relation to Manic-Depressive States,† Melanie Klein claims that the work of mourning is a reliving of the early depressive position. I would like to quote Klein's account: My experience leads me to conclude that, while it is true that the characteristic feature of normal mourning is the individual's setting up the lost loved object inside himself, he is not doing so for the first time but, through the work of mourning, is reinstating that object as well as all his loved internal objects which he feels he has lost. He is therefore recovering what he had already attained in childhood. (Klein, 1988a, p. 362) According to Klein's hypothesis, the loss of the present object in the external world brings with it the mourner's unc... ...lath, 2000, p. 300). Works Cited Arnold, Matthew, The Poems of Matthew Arnold, ed. by Kenneth Allott, 2nd ed. by Miriam Allott (London: Longman, 1979). Ellmann, Maud, ed., Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism (London/ New York: Longman, 1994). Melanie Klein, Love, Guilt and Reparation (London: Virago, 1988a). ---, Envy and Gratitude (London: Virago, 1988b). Plath, Sylvia, Letters Home: Correspondence 1950-1963, ed. by Aurelia Schober Plath (London: Faber, 1976). ---, Johnny Panic and the Bible of Dreams and Other Prose Writings (London: Faber, 1979). ---, Collected Poems of Sylvia Plath, ed. by Ted Hughes (New York: Harper & Row, 1981). ---, The Unabridged Journals of Sylvia Plath, ed. by Karen V. Kukil (New York: Random House, 2000). Segal, Hanna, â€Å"A Psycho-Analytical Approach to Aesthetics,† International Journal of Psycho-Analysis vol. 33 (1952).

Nonverbal Communication and Cultural Differences Essay -- Cultural Dif

Nonverbal communication has always played an important role in the entire communication process. It may include gestures, kinesics, haptics and other means, which a person incorporates into the communication process. These acts make the communication process more effective and meaningful. However, nonverbal communication is highly influenced by cultural differences as the context of the culture defines how the message is interpreted. This essay will analyse several types of nonverbal communication such as proxemics, haptics, kinesics, semiotics and paralinguistic. It will also analyse the messages conveyed by these nonverbal communication types in different cultures and their impact on the non-verbal communication process in relative cultural contexts. Culture has always been a driving force in understanding nonverbal communication as nonverbal communication is highly influenced by the cultural differences as the context of the culture defines how the communication/message is interpreted in certain cultures. â€Å"Communication occurs within a context but the context is particularly important in relation to non-verbal communication† (Tyler, Kossen & Ryan, 2005, p.185). Culture defines the messages perceived by the non-verbal communication. For instance, proxemics. â€Å"Proxemics refers to the spatial relationship or how we use space.† (Tyler, Kossen & Ryan, 2005, p.190) Culture plays an important role in defining the use of one’s personal space in the nonverbal communication process. For example, in North America people usually remain at a distance from one another when talking while Latin American people stay very close when talking. (Wood, 2009). This defines the use of the privacy or personal space in t wo different cultures. H... ... Body Politics, power, sex, and nonverbal communication, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Julia T. Wood. (2009). Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, 6th Edition, Wadsworth Publishing. Knapp, M.L. & Hall, J.A. (2001). Nonverbal communication in human action, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Marshall, C, Rossman, Gretchen B, (2006). Designing qualitative research, 4th edition, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Morris, Desmond. 1994. Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Gestures. New York: Crown Trade Paperbacks. Patterson. M.L. (1983). Nonverbal behaviour: A functional prospective, 1st Edition, Springer Peter Hartley, (1993). Interpersonal Communication, 2nd Edition, Routledge. "Cultural  Differences  in  Non ­verbal  Communication" Web. http://healthvermont.gov/family/toolkit/tools%5CF-6%20Cultural%20Differences%20in%20Nonverbal%20Communic.pdf

Socio-Cultural Influences on Sexuality

â€Å"Sexuality is an important part of our lives†(King, 2012, p.1), and a reoccurring theme throughout our development. The role that sexuality plays in each of our lives is so important that we see its influence through multiple sources in life, including media and social culture. No matter where you look in society some sort of sexuality is present; whether walking in the mall, observing the family life, or watching teens socialize. What is it though that makes a sexually relationship healthy? Is it attraction, intimacy, love, or interactions with each other? Through this paper we will discuss all the aspects of socio-cultural influences on sexuality, as well as the healthy relationship. It was Rathus (1993) who told us â€Å"human sexuality is the way in which we experience and express ourselves as sexual beings.† It only makes sense that through our environment we learn what is appropriate or inappropriate behavior, even when talking about sex. History is flourished with studies on the affects of sexual experiences, and cultural influences. It was Freud who taught us that we begin our exploration of sex at an early age through psuedosexual stages (Rana, 1977). His second essay on Infantile Sexuality discussed the early childhood stages and perversions that affect all.(Rana, 1977) During this controversial time it is the parents who show young children how to act. Therefore, in a family that hugs and touches each other lovingly we should expect to see the children to do so as well. Children are known for mimicking or â€Å"parroting † behavior in which they attempt to learn the societal norms. With this as the basis of a child's development as a sexual being they should be off to a good start. Media Motivators and Sexual Education Unfortunately, parents are not the only influence on a child's development in sexuality. From magazine articles to movies we are surrounded by relationships, some are healthy and some are not. Sex†¦it sells! Or so the media likes to tell us. They post beautiful women half naked on every magazine add, television show, or movie; but it is not just the men who are targeted by such adds. Young girls want to be these women, because they are popular and what society tells us is beautiful. The headlines associated with these beautiful photos read â€Å"How to Make Him Want More Sex†Ã¢â‚¬ , â€Å"How to Make Him Orgasm†Ã¢â‚¬ , and lets not forget â€Å"A Newer, Sexier You for the New Year†.† Is this really how we want our children to learn about sex? Unfortunately, within American culture we see girls younger and younger having children, indicating sexual behavior before marriage. From these indications it is clear that media has the primary influence of sexual culture. Schools offer sexual education often at the young age of middle school in order to assist parents with this large task to right media's wrongs. Although schools focus their education on abstinence rather the safe sex and sexual diseases, some education is better then none or so they tell us. Smith et al.(2003, para 4) results showed that children's knowledge of sexual risks was low, especially in areas of vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections. A sexual risk that controversially has received no attention is the psychological risk that sex can have on one. Without a healthy relationship a person often is left with guilty feelings, regret, and low self worth. This is definitely not the message portrayed through magazine articles. According to Okazaki (Feb. 2002, para 1), the Asian American population is not influenced highly by media motivators. Through her study of this ethnic group she found that because the Asian American population is characterized primarily through their cultural characteristics based on family, collective goals of individual wishes, emphasis on propriety and social codes; sex is reserved for marriage. Through their influences based on modesty there is an exceptional difference in premarital sex. However, her results also show that the more the Asian American culture comes acclimated to our society the more sexual behavior they exhibit. Sexual Gender Theories and Gender Roles Many of the sexual influenced are biased toward gender roles, a set of culturally specific norms concerning expected behaviors and attitudes based on sexual identity of male or female (King, 2012, p. 198). As Okazaki pointed out, in Asian American culture it is still viewed as acceptable for those of the male gender to experiment sexually before marriage, but females are considered delicate flowers not allowed to completely bloomed until matched in a marital pair (2002, para 2). Within the American culture our roles have relaxed some to allow females to experiment, but not until they are a ripe legal age. We allow our men to experiment early through touch (masturbation) and view it as acceptable, yet when little girls play with their bodies it nearly devastates us. Through our harsh reactions we teach the young to feel guilty and wrong about sexual explorations. Many gender roles of our time allow women to work and seek education before or during their motherhood years; changes from our earlier history of the American women. Although a woman may take on these â€Å"extracurricular activities† they are still expected to carry on the traditional chores of housework and child rearing. Men have less responsibility to be the primary breadwinner, yet this is traditionally still their main societal focus. Smith et al. (2003, para 4) research transcripts also put light to the different sexual roles for males and females. It showed females should be more culturally restrained, and males as less abstinent. Both sexes adolescents had strong views towards family importance in the influence of sexual behavior, something congruent across cultural barriers. Part of these gender roles associated with sex pertains to the two gender theories. The first gender theory is that of the sociocultural theory in which the differences are based on the culture in which they are raised; something that we discussed throughout the previous paragraphs. The evolutionary role puts the behavioral difference based on the pressures each sex deals with daily. For women it is that sex is for reproduction, so they seek out the optimal mate in which to love and settle down with. For men it is the attraction, risk taking, and competitiveness that draw them towards multiple mates. In this theory we see more of a discussion on the relationship view of sex, in which we discuss love, attraction, and intimacy. Young women are given pretty pictures of love associated with sex and happy ever after; however, as adults through experience we learn this is not the truth. Healthy relationships are those in which we can say at the end of the day that all experiences including sexual ones are positive (King, 2012, p. 298), this should be the thought we teach our adolescents. Sexual Dysfunction and Commercialized Sex Wilhelm Reich (Demeo, 1998, para 2) believed and proved that emotions and sexuality were directly related, and that there was energy in the libido. His work proved not only that the energy existed but also that sexual dysfunction was a product of emotional detachment due to traumatic event in ones life. Essentially Reich was able to correlate how emotions could play into ones sexual disorder and relate that to sexual crimes. He brought the study of sexual humanity to light, and sought to assist in curing those with sexual ailments. These were important advancements in the study of socio-cultural influences on sexuality as they began to show how our upbringing could negatively affect our sexual views and society. Over time our society has set to life rules and laws against sexually lude behavior, in which we could negatively influence the young. Some of these laws involved diminishing prostitution, limiting access to pornographic materials, and eliminate sex trafficking. From what we do, so shall our children do (author unknown). It is evident that adolescents seek to mimic the actions they see as popular. Movies, television, and magazines teach us to go forth into sexual exploration, and not to worry. The truth is a different story, and so our society must realize the need for change. We must foster education, modesty, and healthy sexual relationships in order to teach younger generations the impact of sexual interactions. We have the option as a society full of culture to choose whether we want generations of sexual dysfunction and violence, or love and sex.

Informative Speech Outline on Addiction to Prescription Drugs

informatory Speech Topical Orientation cosmopolitan purpose Addiction to prescription(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) doses item purpose To inform my audience about the growing problem of prescription care for ab use, some common medicines that origin sophisticate, and their do and some common get overments. Pattern flock living in todays society essential be sensible about the dangers that prescription Drugs offer author them, as head as the masses around them. Introduction * Attention Is it come-at-able that you or someone you love is attached to prescription medicines? An estimated 48 million the great unwashed according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, have utilize prescription drugs for nonmedical reasons in their lifetime. According to * Credibility It was a big epidemic in my spicy school and surrounding schools. Ive lost relationships with muckle close to me due to their prescription drug colony. * . Drug addiction is growing pro mptly throughout the united states and its effecting entirely senesce ranges. * There needs to be more restrictions placed because pile think because the medico is giving it to them, it is safe to abuse them * .Today im endpointination to discuss what types of prescription drugs are macrocosm abused, how it effects your life and health, and possible shipway to overcome the riddle of the addiction. * Reason to get a line * . Ive come to realize that unfortunately everyone knows someone who is addicted to prescription drugs. * . * Preview * Types of prescription drugs * The harms they cause * slipway to overcome the dot of addiction Body A. . 1 .. The collar different classes of prescription drugs a. . opioids- used to enshroud agony-oxycodone, vicodin, roxicet b. depressants-used to treat anxiety and sleep disorders- Xanax, Valium, Klonopin c. . stimulants- used to treat attention deficit disorders- Adderrall, methylphenidate 2. .. The harms that prescription drugs ca use d. . opioids nooky cause drowsiness constipation and abundant term could cause severe respiratory first gear which is or in spiritedest doses, death. e. .anti depressants as hygienic as anti anxiety they croup cause sexual disfunction slant gain fatigue. with the use of these drugs its a chance you can be physically uncoordinated for the first few days until you build your tolerance. . .stimulants can cause heighten brain activity step-up and llertness in energy elevated blood nip increase heart rate increase respiration and sleep deprivation. ultimately these three drugs possess the same long term affect when abused high potential for physical dependence and addiction. 3. Ways for physiciaisn patients and pharamasists to all play a berth in identidying and preventing prescription drug abuse. g. . physicians- strike about any(prenominal) and all drug abuse screening for prescription drug use can be compound into routine medical visits.Take note of of speedy incre ases in the amount of medication needed. f. patients occur directions and be aware of potential interactions with otherwise drugs. Dont just castrate your dose without discussing with your doctor first. Never use another persons prescription. Transition .. B. . Why is prescription drug addiction on the come up? 1. Why is prescription drug addiction on the rise a. Doctors dont exactly know how many tribe are addicted to twinge medication, tho one of the reasons so many hoi polloi are is the availability. b. Vastly more people have access to these medicines today than 15 or 20 years ago. a. Responding to patients and pain advocacy groups, doctors may have perplex less restrictive in prescribing opioid pain pills. There has been a surge in prescriptions for opioids over the past decade and the invention of millions of potential drug stashes in medicine cabinets across the country. b. Teen drug abuse with opioids is now second only to marihuana in popularity. Almost one in 1 0 high school seniors physical composition taking hydrocodone (Vicodin) within the past year.Not by coincidence, many of their parents are taking it likewise Vicodin and its generic form were the most-prescribed drug of any kind for much of this decade. Transition .. C. . 2 . What are some ways that we can treat these prescribed drug addictions? h. .Some addictions, much(prenominal) as opioid addiction, can be tough with medications. i. . These pharmacologic treatments counter the effects of the drug on the brain and behavior, and can be used to relieve withdrawal symptoms, alleviate overcome drug cravings, or treat an overdose. a.Although a behavioral or pharmacological approach alone may be sufficient for treating some patients, research shows that a combined approach may be best. Conclusion * Review. * . Types of prescription drugs * .. the harms that prescription drugs can cause * .. ways to overcome the spread of addiction * .. People living in todays society must be awar e about the dangers that prescription drugs can cause them, as well as the people around them. * pulley-block Drug addiction is such a wide spread epidemic and all of the people with potential are losing catch of their lives by abusing these drugs.

A New Intervention to Reduce Anhedonia in Schizophrenia

Meta-analyses of cognitive behavioral therapy for tyrannical presages of schizophrenic disorder consume demonstrated its effectiveness in reducing hallucinations or delusions. In schizophrenic disorder prohibit signs refer to a reduction of normal functioning, and it encompasses apathy, anhedonia, straight off effect, avolition, cordial withdrawal, and, some eras, psychomotor retardation. The purpose of this study is the bringing close together that Anhedonia is a challenging symptom of schizophrenia and the Great Compromiser largely recalcitrant to current pharmacological treatments.The intent of this exploratory pilot study was to judge if a cognitive-sensory intervention could remediate antecedent merriment. Results turn up that the patients am dying on the antecedent ordered series of the Temporal fix a go at it of Pleasure Scale. Daily activities of the patients were also plusd. In c atomic number 18 for research, it has been shown that the brain of ma stery is invalidatingly correlated with contradict symptoms or even with the fact of being left over(p) alone. Two research questions were addressed in a sample of fivesome crack upicipants. Does cognitive-sensory upbringing in prevenient enjoyment in persons with schizophrenia?Does cognitive-sensory development in antecedent fun suggestion to an increase in the number and complexness of insouciant activities performed by persons with schizophrenia? They did not expect that anticipatory recreation cognitive skills training would directly improve consummatory pleasure. If persons with schizophrenia show a deficit in their top executive to remain pleasure rather than consummatory pleasure, accordingly it becomes realizable to contain cognitive training might cooperate these individuals shout out pleasure from foreseeable, in store(predicate) activities.I sense the writer did a near job employ publications to escort their predictions and I was convinced by the ir argument. The reference used well supporting c one timepts to prove their points as they discussed theories close to prevenient Pleasure Skills teaching A New Intervention to Reduce Anhedonia in Schizophrenia. I in particular handled the idea that they did a twain year comprehensive program including assertive residential district treatment, social skills training, and multifamily therapy root words that led to satisfyingly less confident(p) and negative symptoms, less comorbid substance buse, and solidly greater satisfaction with treatment. The author thought a much unique(predicate) and symptom-centered approach because they felt it might lead to specific advantage in a shorter issue of judgment of conviction. This symptom-specific strategy has been used in otherwise studies for overbearing symptoms, lay offing the development of successful specific therapeutic techniques. The typeface studies presented in this expression highlight the use of this specific symptom approach for Anhedonia. Anhedonia has been defined as a reduction in the talent to experience pleasure. It has been regarded as a core clinical feature of schizophrenia. interrogation has produced a paradoxical set of findings, raising questions about its nature. Individuals with schizophrenia regular(prenominal)ly report experiencing lower levels of pleasure in their daily lives than non-patients on self-report streaks of trait social and physical Anhedonia. Anticipatory pleasure is connect to motivational processes that promote close-directed behaviors consummatory pleasure is associated with surfeit. The Temporal acquire of Pleasure Scale is a trait measure of pleasure that distinguishes between momentary pleasure and anticipation of future pleasure activities. The illumination of a brand- unseasoned way of conceptualizing Anhedonia in schizophrenia permits redefinition and calibration of the symptom complex as a target for treatment. If persons with schizophreni a show a deficit in their ability to anticipate pleasure rather than consummatory pleasure, then it becomes realistic to consider that cognitive training might help these individuals anticipate pleasure from foreseeable, future activities. Greater ability to anticipate pleasure would lead to a substantive increase in spontaneous daily activities performed. quint participants were included in this pilot study. The participants were recruited from the regular clinical practices of the authors. The first and second authors were working in a mobile team of a community psychiatry outpatient service. The different members of this team worked as clinical fortune managers and were specialized in engaging difficult-to-r apiece patients in a comprehensive recovery program including therapeutic, occupational, and vocational services. The troika author was working in a nursing collection plate for psychiatrical patients.The intervention was proposed to the patient when Anhedonia was des cribe as a challenging behavior obstructive improvement in the c ar of the patient. To be included, participants had to be on a moderate dose of nourishment antipsychotic medication, with stable dosage for at least(prenominal) the past 3 months, and not be vile from a study notion (score less than 12 on the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia CDSS). As the intervention was delivered in the routine cargon, signed conscious consent to use the gathered data was obtained retrospectively for patients 1, 2, and 3.The internal review board of the nursing home approved the study, and patients 4 and 5 signed the informed consent form before their participation in the study. The participants were four men and one woman. All participants met the diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition, Text Revision) criteria for schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Diagnosis was obtained at the referral while with intelligence with the referring p sychiatrist. player 1 left school by the age of 16 and had no further appriseing or training.He had been housebound for 3 historic head except during acute somatic or psychiatric c atomic number 18. Participants 2 and 3 were working part time in competitive employment. Participants 1 and 2 lived at home with their parents participant 3 lived alone in her own apartment. Participants 4 and 5 had been institutionalized in a nursing home for 14 age and 30 eld, respectively, and did not work. Participants 1, 4, and 5 had a invoice of alcohol abuse. Participant 1 used hangmans halter when friends visited him at home. The intervention is a cognitive-sensory intervention that aims at increasing anticipatory pleasure.Participants are trained in state of easiness to anticipate pleasure from potential difference en blissable activities and to get the sensation of the pleasure in their bodies. The different steps of the program are draw below. 1. Building the rationale for the interv ention. The rationale is built by asking questions to participants in order to elicit the splendor of being able to anticipate pleasure from future activities, and the links between liking and motivation. Examples of these questions are How do you prompt yourself to engage in activities?What gravels an exercise more or less attractive? What are your criteria to prize if the effort to engage in an bodily process is worthwhile? 2. List of pleasant activities. The therapist and the patient depart list past enjoyable activities that the person would like to resume, actual activities that the person would like to increase, and novel activities associated with sore roles that the person would like to assume. For example, a participant who wants to be closer to his/her sister could engage in the activity of preparing a dinner for his/her sister and her boyfriend. . Classifying activities according to their difficulty. These listed activities are then classified according to the di fficulty and complexity of the task. The classification is done from easy-to-do to difficult-to-do. Examples of saucer-eyed activities are (a) passing game to the corner of the street and having a kebab, (b) taking a mountain pass with a good friend, (c) taking a shower, etc. Complex activities related to social or professional roles are secern in smaller reachable units before engaging in a more challenging activity.For example, spillage to the stadium to support ones favorite hockey team could be split in a more achievable goal such as inviting a friend to outlook ones team on TV if going to a crowded sports arena is an obstacle to engaging in the activity. 4. Anticipating pleasure. During the first sessions, the therapist uses standardized material to teach the anticipatory skills. The material is composed of attractive picture-viewing activities such as biting an appetizing apple, drinking a frothy coffee presented in a cover girl cup, or walking in a ravishing park.In subsequent sessions, the training focuses on the activities listed with the patient. At the beginning of each session, as patients may be contaminated by co-occurring unpleasant emotions (Horan, Green, Kring, & Nuechterlein, 2006), the therapist go out start with a mindfulness or relaxation exercise to help the patient be in a comfortable, pleasant emotional state. Then, the patient is asked to reckon doing the chosen activity. The therapist guides the patient to imagine the sensations linked to the activity through and through the senses involved (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste).The patient is invited to hatch past positive experiences of the activity (e. g. , suppose that you are smelling the scent of the best kebab you have ever eaten . . . tactual sensation the smell of the grilled summation in your nose . . . Concentrate on this odor . . . Try to feel it as vividly as possible). The patient is asked to anticipate pleasant emotions (e. g. , Feel the sensations associated with the joy of being with your friend . . . You told me that this friend is funny . . . Imagine the sensations that go with put-oning. Scan your body and remember how it is to laugh . . . ).According to the anticipated activity, the patient may be guided to anticipate the feeling of accomplishment (e. g. , Feel the contentment of getting out of the shower. . . How is it to feel cleanse and fresh? Try to get this feeling to the broad(a) . . . Anticipate the sensation of reward. . . How is it? ). If the patient shows difficulty in imagining sensations and feelings, pictures can be presented. Patients have to assess their desire to perform the activity on a 5-point casing before and after each exercise. 5. Prescribing homework exercises. As participants develop anticipatory pleasure skills, the therapist prescribes homework exercises.After participants accomplish single activities in daily living, more difficult activities are trained. Participant 1 received 10 hours o f training at home, aimed at giving him the desire to go outside. Participants 2 and 3 received, respectively, 25 hours and 20 hours of training at the therapists office. Participants 4 and 5 received 11 sessions of 1. 5 hours of training each in a weekly group session. Instruments The therapists have administrated the instruments as clinical tools to assess anticipatory and consummatory pleasure, time budget, negative symptoms, and depression.The TEPS. The TEPS measures momentary pleasure and pleasure in anticipation of future activities. It is an 18-item self-report measure of trait, and anticipatory (10 items) and consummatory (8 items) pleasure (Gard et al. , 2006). The validation of the French version of the TEPS shows psychometric characteristics similar to the original version (Favrod et al. , 2009) with a okay internal and external validity. The mean theoretical purge of the two masters goes from 1 to 6 higher hit indicate more pleasure. The scale was administrated in pr etests and posttests.The age Budget Measure The measure developed by Jolley et al. (2005, 2006) takes the form of a weekly diary end retrospectively during a structured interview with the participant. In completing the measure, interviewers probe for activities, degree of independence in activities, and number and nature of social contacts. They also concur that the week is a typical or medium week, and, if not, complete the time budget on a different occasion to assess an average week. each day is divided into four time blocks (morning, lunchtime, afternoon, evening). separately time occlusion or block is then rated from 0 to 4 as below 0 = nothing lying, thinking, sleeping, sitting, etc. , 1 = predominantly hands-off activity (e. g. , watching TV, listening to the radio), 2 = an nonsymbiotic activity requiring some planning and motivation, but relatively simple or brief (e. g. , a walk to the local shops to get cigarettes, tidying room, washing up, preparing a simple meal for oneself), 3 = several two-rated activities completely shift a time period, sounding busy, or a more complex and demanding, but unvaried or shorter activity (e. g. a visit involving public transport, extensive social contact with others), and 4 = time period filled with a variety of demanding independent activities requiring significant motivation and planning, and with some variation in tasks (e. g. , work, a course of study, a trip out requiring organization). When more than one activity is present, the highest scoring activity is rated. in that location are 28 time blocks for the week, and the total possible score ranges from 0 to 112. The time budget was not used for the patients in the nursing home because the time-budget of these patients depended on the institutional routine.The week assessed should be a typical or average week, and if not, the time budget is effected in relation to a week chosen to be more representative. Time budget has a satisfactory criterion and construct validity, and shows good inter-rater dependableness and test-retest reliableness (Jolley et al. , 2005, 2006). In the present study, the participants were interviewed on their time budget starting from the day before the judgment meeting until 7 days before this meeting. The time budget was assessed in pretests and posttests.The CDSS. The CDSS was used to assess depressive symptoms (Addington, Addington, Maticka-Tyndale, & Joyce, 1992). The CDSS is a largely validated interview-based measure that has been shown to assess depression rather than positive, negative, or extrapyramidal symptoms (Addington, Addington, & Maticka-Tyndale, 1993, 1994 Addington et al. , 1992). The scale is validated in French (Lan?on, Auquier, Reine, Bernard, & Toumi, 2000 Lan?on, Auquier, Reine, Toumi, & Addington, 1999). The CDSS was administrated in pretest solitary(prenominal) to assess the severity of depression.Depression defined by the diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder s (4th edition, Text Revision) criteria for major depressive episode corresponds to a mean score of 11. 8 (standard deviation SD = 3. 8) on the CDSS (Kim et al. , 2006). The Scale for the Assessment of invalidating Symptoms Anhedonia/ Asociality. The Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) assesses five symptom complexes to obtain clinical ratings of negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. They are affective blunting, alogia (impoverished thinking), avolition/apathy, anhedonia /asociality, and disturbance of attention.The final symptom complexes look to have less obvious relevance to negative symptoms compared with the other four complexes. Assessments are conducted on a 6-point scale (0 = not at all to 5 = severe Andreasen, 1989). The SANS is a valid instrument (Peralta & Cuesta, 1995) however, interrater reliability is reduced when clinicians use it in comparison to exceedingly trained research assistants (Norman, Malia, Cortese, & Diaz, 1996). In the pre sent study, only the anhedonia /asociality scale of the SANS was administrated in the pretest to assess the severity of Anhedonia.I feel the researchers can test their predictions using these methods because of what lengths they went to in presenting their techniques. They incorporated a lot of various recyclable ideas when testing their participants. M whatever angles were used to go into full detail in what steps were taken to evaluate each participant in this study. The authors I feel gave a very detail analysis of each step that was taken as to not retract out any variables in each event scenario. A cognitive-sensory training package focusing on anticipating future pleasant feelings about performing activities appears to improve anticipatory pleasure as measured by the TEPS.The high RCI indicates that the posttest scores of the anticipatory pleasure scale are reflecting important change for the five participants. These results, although preliminary, are very fire because Anh edonia remains a particularly challenging symptom. Our second question related to whether an increase in anticipatory pleasure would be accompany by an increase in daily activities. Concurrently, change in anticipatory pleasure, as measured by the scale, was accompanied by an increase in activity for the three participants for whom it was possible to fulfill the time budget.Participant 4 had been ritually visiting his mother once a week for years before training. At the end of the training, the nursing home team observe that the patient had added in every week a new spontaneous activity such as going to town to do shopping, planning a little trip, or spontaneously organizing an appointment with the hairstylist outside of the nursing home. Participant 5 had been accomplishing five household chores a day for many years and did not change his program at the end of the training. The participant had been institutionalized for a great part of his behavior.In previous work, we found a significant negative correlation between anticipatory pleasure and the avolition/apathy of the SANS (Favrod et al. , 2009). This correlation was lower than the one with the Anhedonia/asociality scale of the SANS, indicating a weaker link between these two variables. nonchalance and avolition are probably associated with anticipatory pleasure. However, several other variables may affect activity and willingness, such as planning skills, motor skills, reinforcements provided by the environment, etc.The results indicated that the training did not seem to improve consummatory pleasure as a consequence of an increase in anticipatory pleasure. The lack of follow-up assessment did not allow observation of an eventual delay for improvement in consummatory pleasure as a consequence of improvement of anticipatory pleasure and engagement in new activities. Another explanation could be that both kinds of pleasure have some independence between them. Anticipatory pleasure is linked to motivatio nal processes and consummatory pleasure with satiety processes. I feel the researchers did a very good job in describing every detail of their research.My reply to this article is that I think Pleasure Skills Training can really help people with schizophrenia if done properly over an extended period of time under the right conditions. I as well sense that the article does contribute something interesting and important to the field. Individuals with schizophrenia already have a hard enough time in life and to go on living without experiencing a sense of pleasure is disheartening. This study shows that people living with schizophrenia if trained with the right circumstances can ultimately learn how to experience pleasure.I felt this article was presented well and easy to read with what was presented. Going through this article it was clear where each step was and what was going on. The authors used wording appropriate to this article without using too much technical jargon where it was not needed. The readability for me was quite familiar because I have had to do assignments like this before. I think when any author presents an empirical article to the world where others withal advanced Psychologists read it they indeed try and make it easily readable so that their ideas presented get crossways in the best way possible.